Discuss the Types of Unemployment and the Benefits of Controlling It In the UK Essay

Unemployment is the number of people out of work who are actively seeking employment at the current wage rates. To be actively seeking work you must be of working age: 16-64 for males and 16-59 for females and not economically inactive. That means you cannot be in full time education, be on a training scheme, have retired early or be raising children at home. To measure unemployment in the UK the government uses two methods to quantify the rate. The first is the Labour Force Survey, in a monthly survey of a sample of households representing the entire population. The surveys are based on the activities of each person of working age in the households, within a one week period. A person who did any work during that week for pay or profit, worked 15 hours or more as an unpaid worker in a family business, or had a job from which he or she was temporarily absent, is counted as employed. A person who was not working but was looking for work or was on a temporary lay-off and available to take a job is counted as unemployed. The second is the claimant count, where the governments collect figures on the number of people claiming unemployment benefits from the DSS. This second method often gives lower values as they is likely to be many people who do not except the benefits, purely on principal or because they do not need the extra cash. There are five main types of unemployment which all affect the economy in different ways. These are cyclical or demand deficient unemployment, frictional unemployment, seasonal unemployment and structural unemployment. The first of these, cyclical or demand deficient unemployment is based around what will happen to demand in a recession. When the economy goes into a recession there is a rise in unemployment as there is insufficient demand within the economy. This is really only a short term cause to unemployment, because when in recession the economy is in disequilibrium. However macroeconomic forces will work to restore the economy to its long run equilibrium, however in the short run there will be unemployment. In a recession the demand curve will shift left to D2. With the wage rate remaining constant at W in the short term there will be unemployment of GE created. In response macroeconomic forces will cause one of two changes. Either the economy will move out of recession, causing the demand curve to shift right and back to the equilibrium point of W , E. Else if the economy stays in recession the forces will cause the wage rate to drop to Y and cause the number of workers employed to rise to F. However as the economy moves out of recession the demand curve will shift right, causing the economy to move back towards its equilibrium at W , E. The second types of unemployment, frictional unemployment is the term used to define workers who have recently lost a job and are in short term unemployment until they find further employment. There is always turnover of labour in a free market, so frictional unemployment is not regarded as a major problem. Seasonal unemployment is when workers work within an industry that only requires them to be employed at certain times of the year. For example in the tourist industry workers tend to work in the summer, but are then laid off in autumn months before taking up their jobs again the next spring. There is very little that can be done to prevent seasonal unemployment in a market where the demand for labour varies throughout the year. Structural unemployment is when the demand for labour is less than the supply in an individual labour market. There are three main examples of this. Regional unemployment, where different areas of the country have different rates of unemployment and because of a lack of factor mobility, labour is not able to freely move between regions and balance unemployment. Sectoral unemployment is when workers from one industry are unable to adapt to a different industry, therefore not being able to follow the changes in demand. Finally if technological unemployment, where technology advances and replaces manual labour, therefore without retraining workers would not have the skills to operate these machines and therefore would not be suitable for the demand of labour. Controlling the rate of unemployment in the UK is going to be a key element in the performance of the UK economy. The rate of unemployment is directly related to real GDP. So in both the short run and the long run if the economy is to grow then unemployment most be controlled. The rate of unemployment will also determine the kind of policy the government will have in place to boost the economy, although this is also based on the type of government in power. The current labour government are Keynesian economists and believe that in the long run there may be mass unemployment. They also use fiscal policy, which is a demand side policy. So their economic goals will depend a lot on the long term unemployment levels that are predicted. If the government are predicting a period of sustained unemployment they are likely to be aiming at lowering inflation. Whereas if they predict full employment they can aim for increased GDP. Because of the shape of the long run aggregate supply curve, both these goals can be achieved without altering any other elements of the economy. To lower inflation the demand function would need to be shifted left. This could be achieved by an increase in the National Insurance contributions of workers. This would cause more of people’s income being taken in taxation leaving them with less money to spend on goods and services, which would cause a decrease in the total demand in the economy. To help increase economic growth the total demand in the economy would need to be increased. This would need a shift left in the demand function, which could be caused by a fall in interest rates. This would cause more people to borrow money and less to save, leaving more money in the economy which will increase the demand for goods and services. If unemployment can be kept low then the costs of unemployment are minimised as well. Not only do the government have to spend less on unemployment benefits but also have less trouble with crime and vandalism, which will also save them valuable money. Also everyone will have more money to spend, not only the previous unemployed, but also previous taxpayers as the government will require less money from them. This will increase total money in the economy and cause the aggregate demand to shift right, which will cause the growth of the economy to increase. So sustainable unemployment is good for the economy as it enables the government to set goals and work towards them around the long term predictions for unemployment rates. This is only an option if unemployment is kept in a boundary. Else if it is too fluctuated then it is hard to judge what the government will need to do from one day to the next. However controlling unemployment may not always be a good thing. For example because unemployment is directly related to economic growth, if you are controlling unemployment then you are also controlling economic growth. This will not be a good thing as the economy is at its most efficient when economic growth is climbing at a rate constant to the economy, not controlled by the government.

Limb Loss A Major Event Health And Social Care Essay

Amputation could be described as the remotion of a organic structure appendage or portion by surgery or injury. If taken as a surgical step, it is used to command hurting or disease procedure in the affected portion or limb. A individual with an amputation may experience mutilated, empty and vulnerable. Traumatic amputation is a ruinous hurt and frequently a major cause of disablement ( Wald 2004 ) . Furthermore, reduced self-pride, societal isolation, organic structure image jobs, and sense of stigmatisation have besides been associated with limb loss ( William et al. 2004 ) . In some state of affairss, amputation are ineluctable. Irrespective of the cause, amputation is a mutilating surgery and it decidedly affects the lives of these patients ( De Godoy et Al. 2002 ) . Amputation of limb is a common thing in this present society. The loss of a limb distorts the persons organic structure image taking to the idea of non being a complete human being. The loss of the maps performed with that limb renders him helpless for sometime.Apart from loss of physical maps, the amputee besides loses hopes and aspirations for the hereafter ; his programs and aspirations get shattered. Therefore, he loses non merely a limb but besides a portion of his universe and hereafter. A considerable figure of them remain disquieted and dying about their interpersonal relationship in the societal, vocational, familial and matrimonial surroundings. Those few who have an open mental dislocation will necessitate active psychiatric intervention. In others in whom the mental symptoms are non so obvious, a careful psychiatric interview is necessary to convey to the bow the interior convulsion whichmay need aid of a head-shrinker. Limb loss is a major event that can badly impact the psychological wellness of the person concerned. Surveies show that 20-60 % of the amputees go toing follow up clinics are assessed to be clinically depressed. Persons with traumatic amputation irrespective of the age are likely to endure subsequent troubles with respect to their organic structure image, but these are bit more dramatic in the younger age groups. The psychological reactions to amputation are clearly diverse runing from terrible disablement at one extreme ; and a finding to efficaciously restart a full and active life at other terminal. In grownups the age at which an person receives the amputation is an of import factor. Surveies by Bradway JK et Al 1984 [ 15 ] , Kohl SJ Et Al 1984 [ 30 ] , Livneh H 1999 [ 9 ] , on the psycho-social version to amputation has led to a overplus of clinical and empirical findings. Kingdon D et Al 1982 equated amputation with loss of one ‘s perceptual experience of wholenessA while Parkes CM 1976 [ 10 ] with loss of partner andA Block WE et al 1963 [ 16 ] , Goldberg RT et Al 1984 with symbolic emasculation & A ; even death.A The person ‘s response to a traumatic event is influenced by personality traits, pre-morbid psychological province, gender, peri-traumatic dissociation, drawn-out disablement of traumatic events, deficiency of societal support and unequal header schemes. The old researches on amputation has focused chiefly on demographic variables, get bying mechanisms, and outcome steps ; with there being a scarceness of literature on prevalence of assorted specific psychiatric upsets in the post-amputation period. Most patients with a limb loss irrespective of whether due to traumatic or surgical processs go through a series of complex psychological responses ( Cansever et al 2003 [ 6 ] ) . Most people try to get by with it, those who do n't win develop psychiatric symptoms ( Frank et al 1984 [ 7,8 ] ) .A Shukla et Al ( 1982 ) [ 4 ] A andA Frierson and Lippmann ( 1987 ) A note that psychological intercession in some signifier is needed in approximately 50 % of all amputees, andA Shulka and co-workers ( 1982 ) [ 4 ] A study depression to be the most common psychological reaction following amputation. The three major jobs faced by many amputees are anxiousness, depression and physical disablement ( Green 2007 ) Horgan & A ; MacLachlan ( 2004 ) found Anxiety to be associated with depression, low ego regard, poorer sensed quality of life and higher degree of general anxiousness. With increasing age both anxiousness and depressive symptoms are associated with greater physical disablement ( Brenes et al. 2008 ) . Body image may be defined as the combination of an person ‘s psychosocial accommodation, experiences, feelings and attitudes that relate to the signifier, map, visual aspects and desirableness of one ‘s ain organic structure which is influenced by single and environmental factors ( Horgan & A ; MacLachlan 2004 ) . Each individual holds an idealised image of the organic structure, which he uses to mensurate the percepts and constructs of his or her ain organic structure ( Fishman, 1959 ) . From another position, Flannery & A ; Faria ( 1999 ) see body image in a individual as a dynamic changing phenomenon, it is formed by feelings and perceptual experiences about a individual ‘s organic structure that are invariably altering. Harmonizing to Newell ( 1991 ) , attractive people post amputation will probably have less support from others ensuing in a lessening in self-esteem and a lessening in positive self-image. Jacobsen et Al ( 1997 ) survey supports this stating that amputation consequences in disfiguration which may take to a negative organic structure image and possible loss of societal credence. The relationship between disablement experience and stigma are interwoven and inter-dependent. The ground for the amputees subjective perceptual experience of being unfit for the society is likely that organic structure image non merely provides a sense of †self ‘ ‘but besides affects how we think, act and relate to others ( Wald 2004 ) . Harmonizing to Kolb ( 1975 ) , an change in an person ‘s organic structure image sets up a series of emotional, perceptual and psychological reactions. Fishman ( 1959 ) states a individual â€Å" must larn to populate with his perceptual experiences of his disablement † instead than â€Å" with his disablement. † Successful accommodation for the amputee appears to be in the incorporation of the prosthetic device into his or her organic structure image and his or her focal point on the hereafter and non on the portion lost ( Malone JM, Moore, WS, Goldston J, A et Al, 1979 and, Bradway JK [ 15 ] , Malone JM, Racy J, A et al 1984 ) . The psychiatric facets of amputation has received light involvement in our state, inspite of inadvertent hurts being common ( Shukla et al. , 1982 [ 4 ] ) . The commonest psychiatric upset seen in amputees is major depression. Randall et Al. ( 1945 ) have reported an incidence of 61 % in non-battle casualties, while Shukla et Al. ( 1982 ) [ 4 ] found depressive neuroticism ( 40 % ) and psychiatric depression ( 22 % ) as taking psychiatric upsets in amputees ; merely 35 % of the entire sample in the later survey had nil psychiatric upsets. The dearth of literature in this field has prompted us to analyze of amputation and its carbon monoxide morbid psychiatric conditions so that we may be after care & amp ; direction for these patients. The present survey was undertaken with the purpose of analyzing the psychiatric jobs particularly anxiety, depression and organic structure dysmorphic syndrome which may be associated with disablement or changed life fortunes in the immediate post-ampu tation period. A comparing was made with Stroke patients as these patients excessively frequently experience similar physical and societal disabilities to amputees. Depression is the most common temper upset to follow shot ( Starkstein & A ; Robinson, 1989 ) , with major depression impacting around one one-fourth to one tierce of patients ( Beekman et al. , 1998 ; Ebrahim, Barer, & A ; Nouri, 1987 ; Hackett, Yapa, Parag, & A ; Anderson, 2005 ; Pohjasvaara et al. , 1998 ) . Depression has an inauspicious consequence on cognitive map, functional recovery, and endurance. Diagnostic and statistical manual ( DSM ) IV categorizes station shot depression as â€Å" temper upset due to general medical status ( i.e. shot ) † with the specific depressive characteristics, major depressive-like episodes, frenzied characteristics or assorted features.Two types of depressive upset associated with intellectual ischaemias have been described from surveies done with patient informations from acute infirmary admittance, community studies, or out patient clinics. Major depression occurs in up to 25 % of patients ; and minor depression occurs in 30 % of patient. Prevalence clearly varies over clip with an evident extremum 3months after the shot and later worsen in prevalence at 1 twelvemonth. Robinson and co-workers surveies showed a self-generated remittal in the natural class of major depression happening station shot in the first to 2nd twelvemonth following shot . However in few instances depression may go chronic and persist for a longer period. While some propose that station shot depression is due to stroke impacting the nervous circuits concerned with temper ordinance therby back uping a primary biological mechanism, others in the scientific community claim it to be due to the resulting societal and psychological stressors happening as a consequence of shot. Though an incorporate bio- psycho- societal theoretical account is warranted, most surveies clearly suggest the biological mechanism to hold the upper manus in the ulterior station stroke period than in the immediate stage. In the same manner Anxiety was about every bit common as depression and extra patients became dying at each clip point. Around 20 per cent of people will develop an anxiousness upset, most normally in the first three to four months after the shot. While the literature on PSA remains in its babyhood, the literature has begun to analyze its relationship to similar demographic, hurt, cognitive, and physical features as those examined for PSD. In footings of hurt features, PSA correlates significantly with right hemisphere lesions, while co-morbid PSA and PSD are linked to go forth hemisphere lesions ( Astrom,1996 ) .A Castillo etal. ( 1993 ) A foundA anxietyA more prevailing in association with posterior right hemisphere lesions, whereas worry withoutA anxietydisorderA was associated with anterior lesions. ThoseA studiesA that have found relationships between PSA and age and gender study that adult females ( Morrison, Johnston, & A ; Walter, 2000 ; A Schultz, Castillo, Kosier, & A ; Robinson, 1997 ) and younger patients ( & lt ; 59 old ages ) are more susceptible to PSA ( Schultz et al. , 1997 ) , while others report no important relationship ( Dennis et al. , 2000 ) .Review literature:Amputation: Sociodemographic factors: Several surveies revealed that major depressive upsets and greater depressive symptomatology were more prevailing at lower degrees of socioeconomic position [ Bruce L et Al 1994, Stansfeld et al 1992 ] . However, income degrees of people with an amputa-tion were non related to depressive symptoms [ Behel J M et Al 2004 ] . Dunn used a 10-page questionnaire to determine a assortment of personal features such as matrimonial position, faith, instruction, and etiology, etc. about each of 138 topics recruited from the Eastern Amputee Golf Association.13 With a scope of points, the survey focused on those â€Å" related to the effects of positive significance, optimism, and perceived control on depression and self-pride. â€Å" 13 Depression was measured utilizing the CES-D while self-pride was assessed by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale ( RSE ) . Sing physical factors, Dunn found that younger amputees were significantly more at hazard to develop depression than older amputees ( P & lt ; .05 ) . Mentioning Williamson and Schulz every bit good as Frank [ 7,8 ] et Al, the writer suggests that both activity restriction-perhaps more usual, accepted by older persons than young-and visual aspect anxiousness may account for the determination. Wald et al supported Dunn ‘s findings with a mention to Fisher & A ; Hanspal and Livneh ‘s articles that suggests immature individuals, with amputations secondary to trauma, are more likely to develop depression than older individuals with amputations secondary to disease.3 Wald et Al besides cites Cheung et al as demoing that individuals with upper appendage amputations had higher rates of depression than lower appendage amputees. Darnall et Al ‘s telephone cross-sectional study revealed some interesting physical hazard factors for depression. The survey found that comorbidities were a important hazard factor ( for one comorbidity, p=.007 ; for two comorbidities, pa†°Ã‚ ¤.001 ) . Anyone with terrible apparition hurting was 2.92 times more likely to develop depression than those without annoying pain.8 Other types of hurting such as residuary limb or back hurting were besides found to increase the opportunity of developing depressive symptoms. Hanley et al took 70 topics, 1 month post-amputation of the lower appendage, and asked inquiries about map, apparition limb hurting, header, etc. The patients were assessed once more at 12 and 24 months after the amputation.14 Phantom limb hurting was measured utilizing points adapted from the Graded Chronic Pain Scale ( GCPS ) and pain intervention was measured by portion of the Brief Pain Inventory ( BPI ) . Later, multiple arrested development analyses were used to find what factors at the initial appraisal may hold predicted the development of depression. Ultimately, the survey found the most certain physical factor to increase the hazard of depression was the presence along with the badness of apparition limb hurting. Using HADS with 105 topics at an amputation rehabilitation ward, Singh et al found none of the following to be risk factors for depression or anxiousness: age, gender, clip since amputation, degree or prosthetic bringing events.10 There was, nevertheless, a important correlativity between the presence of comorbidities and depression ( p & lt ; .01 ) every bit good as between life in isolation and anxiousness ( p & lt ; .05 ) . The writers offer small account for their findings. Dunn found ab initio that none of the following appeared to be risk factors for depression: gender, degree of amputation, matrimonial position, race, income degree, instruction, employment, or spiritual affiliation.13 Ultimately, nevertheless, the survey did find-as Wald et Al subsequently reported-that beyond young person as a physical hazard factor for depression, there were several emotional/psychological hazard factors.3 Subjects who were less optimistic-not needfully pessimistic-about their state of affairs were more likely to develop depression, as were those who could non happen significance in their amputation experience and anyone who felt they had small control over their intervention and position. It was the participants who reported missing a positive mentality, who could believe merely of the negative effects, and who felt out of control or unimportant that tended to show down symptoms as clip progressed. Wald et al went farther to mention Breakey and Rybarczyk et Al with findings proposing that missing a societal support system, holding issues with visual aspect, and uncomfortableness in society due to personal perceptual experiences about societal interactions all increased the likeliness of developing depression.3 This construct of hurt and depression issue from the amputee keeping certain beliefs about visual aspect and being sensitive to public uneasiness was echoed in the findings of Atherton et al.11 That survey explained the findings by proposing that individuals with high public uneasiness were by and large the type of individual to care a batch about societal contact and what is considered â€Å" normal † ; these individuals would be acutely cognizant of how they might now be perceived to be â€Å" different † and accordingly experience hard-pressed. Lack of societal support after an amputation was found to be a hazard factor in several of the reviewed surveies, including Darnall et al.8 The survey discovered that those topics who were, at the clip of or shortly after the amputation, either divorced or separated from a important other were more likely to develop depressive symptoms. Besides likely to increase depression rates was populating near the poorness degree ; depression, nevertheless, was buffered by the topic holding a higher instruction. Populating near the poorness degree and holding a higher instruction, although both are imaginable particularly sing the emphasis poorness topographic points upon individuals with medical conditions, was non confirmed in any of the other literature reviewed here. Previous depressive episodes and abnormal psychology was found to be a hazard factor for later depression in both Meyer and Ehde et al.5,9 Meyer ‘s survey suggested that pre-injury personality disfunction had the greatest influence on the prevalence of depression after an amputation, in this instance of the manus. Ehde et al discovered old depressive episodes-since the amputation but earlier in the survey of 24 months-to be more declarative, instead than pre-injury mental province. The survey besides suggests gender and societal support to be of import factors in the development of depression. Interestingly, Ehde et Al claims that pain catastrophizing by the topic while in the infirmary puting leads to modern-day and later increased rates of depression.9 Commenting on its contradiction to common cognition and other literature on this point, Hanley et al studies happening that hurting catastrophizing in patients decreased the prevalence of depression in survey subjects.14 The writers speculate that patient hurting catastrophizing, peculiarly in the ague attention puting, garnered more attending from wellness attention staff and household, with it possibly more of the psychological or physical attention they needed to retrieve. This suggests that, by being more demanding, the patients received support that other less-vocal patients did non. Last, beyond hapless hurting tolerance, both Seidel et Al and Desmond found that topics who avoided discussing or screening and were in denial about their amputation were more likely to develop depression both ab initio and long-term.6,7 Subjects who preferred to avoid admiting their new position as amputees besides tended to hold hapless credence of their prosthetic device. This became evident at the clip of prosthetic adjustments when topics frequently became progressively distressed, by and large going depressed.Depression and anxiousness:Most surveies agree that between 20 and 30 % of amputees qualify for MDD after amputation This depression is frequently associated with anxiousness and may or may non be attributable to posttraumatic emphasis upset. All surveies describing on the prevalence of depression in the amputee population found rates higher than those in the general population, peculiarly in the months and old ages instantly following the amputation. Grunert et al. , as cited in Wald et Al, found that, at the initial appraisal after manus hurt, 62.4 % of topics claimed depressive symptoms. Another reappraisal, Horgan et Al, cites Caplan et al as happening 58 % of topics to measure up for MDD at 18-months station amputation while mentioning Bodenheimer et Al ‘s findings of a 30 % depression rate. Meyer determined that the bulk of surveies on depression in amputees, on norm, found a prevalence of about 30 % , between three and six times higher than the world-wide rate. Seidel et Al found a similar rate of depression among individuals after the amputation of a lower appendage as opposed to the more socially noticeable upper appendage and custodies. In a three-part cross-sectional study administered to 75 patients seen at the Klinik und Poliklinik fur Technische Orthopade des Universitatsklinikums Munster, topics were asked inquiries and assessed harmonizing to the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale ( HADS ) , In this survey, 27 % and 25 % of the topics with a lower appendage amputation demonstrated increased depression or anxiousness, severally ; 18.3 % had both higher depression and anxiousness. Desmond determined that 28.3 % of the topics had tonss to bespeak possible MDD and 35.5 % qualified for clinical anxiousness. Darnall et al completed a cross-sectional study via telephone with 914 capable amputees.8 The topics were selected from a database of people who contacted the Amputee Coalition of America between 1998 and 2000 ; the sample was categorized per the topics ‘ etiologies but both upper and lower appendage amputations were included. Through informations analysis the survey found a depression prevalence of 28.7 % which the writers concluded was comparable to rates antecedently reported in surveies of depression in the amputee population. Singh et Al performed a cohort survey on 105 individuals with lower appendage amputation secondary to a assortment of etiologies who were admitted to an amputee rehabilitation ward.10 Upon admittance and discharge, each topic completed the HADS ; during the class of their stay, certain factors about each patient-such as gender, societal inside informations and found at admittance, 26.7 % of the topics were classified as down and 24.8 % as dying. Through a cross-sectional study of 67 new ( within the past five old ages ) adult lower appendage amputees who wear prosthetic devices, Atherton et al investigated the topics ‘ longer term psychological accommodation to amputation and found 13.4 % of the topics to be depressed and 29.9 % to be dying. Ziad M Hawamdeh et Al, have shown the prevalence of depressive and anxiousness symptoms to be 20 % and 37 % severally, which is consistent with several old surveies that confirmed high rates of anxiousness and depressive symptoms after amputation with prevalence up to 41 % ( Kashani et al 1983 ; Schubert et Al 1992 ; Hill et al 1995 ; Cansever et Al 2003 [ 6 ] ; Atherton and Robertson 2006 ; Seidel et Al 2006 ) . Most surveies have found no important relationship between the clip resulting amputation and psychological perturbations ( Rybarczyk et al 1992 ; Thompson et Al 1984 ) , ( Horgan and Maclachlan 2004 ) . Horgan and Maclachlan ( 2004 ) in their publication on amputations psychological accommodation concluded that depression and anxiousness seemingly are higher in the first 2 old ages post amputation and thenceforth worsen to degrees prevalent in the general population. Singh and Hunter 2007 in their recent survey concluded depression neodymium anxiousness symptoms to decide after in patient rehab for a short continuance. Gender is one of the sociodemographic factor that could be associated with result following amputation. In footings of psychological wellbeing following amputation, most surveies have found no difference in psychosocial result between work forces and adult females ( Bradway et al 1984 [ 15 ] ; Williamson 1995 ; Williamson and Walters 1996 ) . But surveies performed by Kashani and col-leagues ( 1983 ) , O'Toole and co-workers ( 1984 ) , and Pezzin and co-workers ( 2000 ) , have reported adult females to be more likely to see depression, and to execute more ill on a step that includes an appraisal of emotional adaptability. Fisher and Hanspal ( 1998 ) , Livneh and co-workers ( 1999 ) [ 9 ] suggested immature grownups with traumatic amputation to be at higher hazard of major depression in comparing to persons with surgical amputations. Other surveies analyzing the relationship between cause of amputation and psychosocial result have found no consequence of amputation on psychiatric symptoms ( Shukla et al 1982 [ 4 ] ) , anxiousness ( Weinstein 1985 ) , and depressive symptoms ( Kashani et al 1983 ; Rybarczyk et Al 1992 ; Williamson and Walters 1996 ) . Engstorm et Al ( 2001 ) , showed that the amputee ‘s current household reactions to hold a important consequence on accommodation. Williamson et Al ( 1984 ) , Thompson and Haran ( 1984 ) , Rybarczyk et Al ( 1992, 1995 ) , found depression to be more prevailing in those who are socially stray and with low sensed degrees of societal support. Harmonizing to Weinstein ( 1985 ) , although above articulatio genus amputations are associated with poorer rehabilitation results and higher activity limitation degrees, AK amputations were non found to be associated with increased degrees of anxiousness, societal uncomfortableness, general psychiatric symptoms ( Shukla et al 1982 [ 4 ] ) , depression ( Behel et al 2002 ) , or accommodation to amputation ( Tyc 1992 ) . O'Toole et Al ( 1984 ) found that persons with BK amputation to be more likely down than those with AK amputations because BK is less badly disenabling than AK in footings of operation.Body image perturbation:Few surveies have been reported in the literature in the country of research on organic structure image and the amputee. Fishman ( 1959 ) determined the amputee ‘s perceptual experience of his or her physical disablement has a greater influence on successful rehabilitation than the extent of the disablement. He states, â€Å" A figure of really specific psychological, societal and physiological homo demands are thwarted when one becomes physically handicapped as a consequence of amputation†¦ . The method of seting psychologically to an amputation is chiefly a map of the preamputation personality and psychosocial background of the individual. Each individual holds an idealised image of the organic structure, which he uses to mensurate the percepts and constructs of his or her ain organic structure ( Fishman, 1959 ) . From another position, Flannery & A ; Faria ( 1999 ) see body image in a individual as a dynamic changing phenomenon, it is formed by feelings and perceptual experiences about a individual ‘s organic structure that are invariably altering. Harmonizing to Kohl ( 1984 ) [ 30 ] , a individual who has lost a limb must see him- or herself every bit merely that ( a individual who has lost a limb ) and non burthen him- or herself with labels such as â€Å" amputee. † Kohl [ 30 ] suggests this attitude is the key to a positive accommodation to a new organic structure image after an amputation. Shontz ( 1974 ) suggests an person who is losing a limb has three organic structure images: the preamputation integral organic structure, the organic structure with limb loss and the organic structure image when have oning a prosthetic device. The weiss et Al ( 1971 ) studied 56 transfemoral amputees and 44 transtibial amputees utilizing a comprehensive battery of trials and a 50-item Amputee Behavior Rating Scale. The evaluation graduated table assessed the existent behavior of the amputees as observed by the members of the amputee clinic squad. This signifier was completed by the squad members: the doctor, healer, prosthetics and rehabilitation counselor. On about all measures the transtibial amputees obtained better tonss than the transfemoral amputees. The research workers wises et Al ( 1971 ) found â€Å" the degree of amputation was significantly related to legion facets of psychophysiological and personality working while aetiology was non. † They concluded that since transtibial amputees are less handicapped as a group, they by and large function better than transfemoral amputees. In add-on, they suggest the less-positive self-image of the transfemoral amputees besides can be attributed to a less-appealing p ace, frequently with a noticeable hitch ( wises et al 1971 ) .Post shot:Sociodemographic profile:The possible influences of socioeconomic position ( SES ) , age and gender on the development of depression following shot have all been examined, with inconsistent consequences ( Ouimet et al. 2001 ) . Although one could foretell intuitively that lower SES and increasing age are associated with the hazard for PSD, this is non needfully the instance. Andersen et Al. ( 1995 ) reported that SES had no influence on the hazard for post-stroke depression and recent surveies suggest that younger instead than older age is associated with increased hazard ( Eriksson et al. 2004 ; Carota et Al. 2005 ) . Given the well higher prevalence of depression among adult females when compared to work forces in the general population ( Wilhelm & A ; Parker 1994 ; Ouimet et Al. 2001 ; Salokangas et Al. 2002 ) , a higher prevalence of PSD among adult females might be expected. While the consequences from some surveies support the association between female sex and PSD ( Desmond et al. 2003 ; Paradiso & A ; Robinson 1998 ; Ouimet et Al. 2001, Eriksson et al. , 2004, Paolucci et Al. 2005 ) , others do non ( Ouimet et al. 2001 ; Berg et Al. 2003 ; Whyte et Al. 2004, Spalletta et Al. 2005 ) . However, there may be existent differences between work forces and adult females in footings of the comparative importance of hazard factors for PSD. Among work forces, physical damage may be a more influential hazard factor ( Paradiso & A ; Robinson 1998 ; Berg et Al. 2003 ) , while among adult females, old history of psychiatric upset may be more of import ( Paradiso & A ; Robinson 1998 ) .Depression and anxi ousness:Three possible accounts for the association between physical unwellness and depression have been sought. First, and least likely is a coinciding relationship. The 2nd is a negative temper reaction to the physical effects of the shot. The impact of the physical unwellness may exert its consequence through the losingss it causes to the person as a major negative life event ( losingss to selfesteem, independency, employment, etc. ) . The 3rd possible account is a neurotransmitter instability as a consequence of intellectual harm caused by the shot. Depression is a well-documented sequela of shot. Based on pooled informations from published prevalence surveies ( Robinson 2003 ) , the average prevalence of depression among in-patients in ague or rehabilitation scenes was 19.3 % and 18.5 % for major and minor depression severally while, among persons in community scenes, average prevalence for major and minor depression was reported to be 14.1 % and 9.1 % . Among patients included in outpatient surveies, mean reported prevalence was 23.3 % for major depression and 15 % for minor depression ( Robinson 2003 ) . Overall average prevalence ranged from 31.8 % in the community surveies to 35.5 % in the ague and rehabilitation infirmary surveies. A recent systematic reappraisal of prospective, experimental surveies of post-stroke depression ( Hackett et al. 2005 ) reported that 33 % of shot subsisters exhibit depressive symptoms at some clip following shot ( acute, medium-term or long-run followup ) . Estimates of prevalence may be affected by the clip from shot onset until appraisal. In fact, the highest rates of incident depression have been reported in the first month following shot ( Andersen et al. 1995, Aben et Al. 2003, Bhogal et Al. 2004, Morrison et Al. 2005, Aben et Al. 2006 ) . Paolucci et Al. ( 2005 ) reported that, of 1064 patients included in the DESTRO survey, 36 % developed depression of whch 80 per centum of them developed depression within the first three station stroke months ( Paolucci et al. 2005 ) . The incidence of major depression may diminish over the first 2 old ages following shot ( Astrom et al. 1993, Verdelho et Al. 2004 ) but minor depression tends to prevail or instead addition over the above mentioned clip period ( Burvill et al. 1995 ; Berg et Al. 2003, Verdelho et Al. 2004 ) . Berg et Al. ( 2003 ) reported about one-half of the persons sing depression during the acute stage station shot, to see it in the resulting one and half twelvemonth ; nevertheless, more adult females than work forces have been identified in the acute stage while there is a male predomination in the latter half period ( Berg et al. 2003 ) . The survey of temper upsets after shot has focused mostly on depression. Reported prevalence of PSD varies widely, though most surveies place prevalence between 20 and 50 % , and indicate that depression persists 3-6 months poststroke ( Fedoroff, Starkstein, Parikh, Price, & A ; Robinson, 1991 ; Hosking, Marsh, & A ; Friedman et al, 2000 ; Lyketsos, Treisman, Lipsey, Morris, & A ; Robinson, 1998 ; Parikh, Lipsey, Robinson, & A ; Price, 1988 ; Schubert, et al 1992 ; Schwartz et al. , 1993 ; Starkstein, Bryer, Berthier, & A ; Cohen, 1991 ; Starkstein & A ; Robinson, 1991a, 1991b ) . PSD has a negative impact on instance human death and rehabilitation ( Whyte & A ; Mulsant, 2002 ) , and functional results ( Herrmann, Black, Lawrence, Szekely, & A ; Szalai, 1998 ) . In contrast, PSA has merely late begun to be investigated ( Castillo, Schultz, & A ; Robinson, 1995 ; Castillo, Starkstein, Fedoroff, & A ; Price, 1993 ; Chemerinski & A ; Robinson, 2000 ; Dennis, O'Rourke, Lewis, Sharpe, & A ; Warlow, 2000 ; Robinson, 1997, 1998 ; Shimoda & A ; Robinson, 1998 ) with prevalence studies runing from 4 to 28 % ( Astrom, 1996 ; House et al. , 1991 ) . As with PSD, the class of PSA has been found to stay reasonably changeless up to 3 old ages post stroke ( Astrom, 1996 ; Robinson, 1998 ) . Co-morbidity of PSA and PSD is high, with every bit many as 85 % of people with generalized anxiousness holding co-morbid depression during the 3 old ages post stroke ( Castillo et al. , 1993, 1995 ) . Previously depression was found to be frequent in immature patients ( Neau et al. 1998 ) , while in some surveies ( Sharpe et al. 1994, kotila et Al. 1998 ) it has been related to old age. Lack or societal support and both functional and cognitive damage may increase the hazard of depressive upset in the elsderly ( Sharpe et al. 1994 ) . Robinson et Al in 1984 studied patients of shot in 2 groups in relation to onset of of depression, group of patients with acute oncoming of depression, within few hebdomads after shot and 2nd group with delayed oncoming of depression over 24 months and found no difference in clinical characteristics or class of depression in the two groups. In 1986 Lapse et al compared a group of patients with PSD with 43 platinums with functional depression that the two groups did non differ in the symptom profile of depression is the important determination in their survey. Although post-stroke depression ( PSD ) is a common effect of shot, hazard factors for the development of PSD have non been clearly delineated. In a recent systematic reappraisal, Hackett and Anderson ( 2005 ) included informations from a sum of 21 surveies ( Table 18.2 ) . Of the many different variables assessed, physical disablement, stroke badness and cognitive damage were most systematically associated with depression. In an earlier reappraisal of 9 prospective surveies analyzing post-stroke depression, the hazard factors identified most systematically as increasing an person ‘s hazard for post-stroke depression included a past history of psychiatric morbidity, societal isolation, functional damage, populating entirely and dysphasia ( Ouimet et al. 2001 ) . Since the clip of the Hackett et Al. ( 2005 ) and Ouimet et Al. ( 2001 ) reviews, more recent surveies have confirmed the importance of badness of initial neurological shortage and physical disablement as forecasters of the development of depression after shot ( Carota et al. 2005, Christensen et Al. 2009 ) . In add-on, Storor and Byrne ( 2006 ) examined post-stroke depression in the acute stage ( within14 yearss of shot oncoming ) and identified important associations between prestrike neurosis ( OR = 3.69, 95 % CI 1.25 – 10.92 ) and a past history of mental upsets ( OR = 10.26, 95 % CI 3.02 – 34.86 ) and the presence of dep ressive symptoms.Stroke Location and Depression:There have been 2 meta-analyses analyzing this relationship ( Singh et al. 1998, Carson et Al. 2000 ) . Singh et Al. ( 1998 ) conducted a critical assessment on the importance of lesion location in post-stroke depression. The writers consistently selected 26 original articles that examined lesion location and post-stroke depression. Thirteen of the 26 articles satisfied inclusion standard ( Table 18.3 ) . Six of those surveies found no important difference in depression between right and left hemisphere lesions. Two surveies found that right-sided lesions were more likely to be associated with depression and 4 surveies found that left-sided lesions were more likely to be associated with post-stroke depression. Merely one survey matched patients with and without depression for lesion location and size to place non-lesion hazard factors. Consequently, Singh et Al. ( 1998 ) were unable to do any unequivocal decisions refering shot lesion location and the hazard for depression. Carson et Al. ( 2000 ) undertook a systematic reappraisal to see the association between post-stroke depression and lesion location. All studies on the association of poststroke depression with location of encephalon lesions were included in the reappraisal. In entire 48 studies were included for reappraisal ( Table 18.4 ) . The writers of the reappraisal identified 38 studies that found no important difference in hazard of depression between lesion sites ; 2 reported an increased hazard of poststroke depression with left-sided lesions ; 7 reported increased hazard with right-sided lesions ; and one study demonstrated an association between depression and lesions in the right parietal part or the left frontal part. Robinson & A ; Szetela ( 1981USA ) : 18 patients with left hemispheric shot were compared to 11 patients with traumatic encephalon hurt for frequence and badness of depression, More than 60 % of the shot patients had clinically important depression compared with approximately 20 % of the injury patients. Hermann et Al. ( 1995 Germany ) : 47 patients with individual demarcated one-sided lesions were selected for survey. Clinical scrutiny, CT scan scrutiny and psychiatric appraisal were performed within a 2-month period after the acute shot. No important differences in depression tonss noted between patients with left and right hemisphere lesions. Major depression was exhibited in 9 patients with left hemispheric shots all affecting the basal ganglia. None of the patients with right hemispheric shots exhibited a major depression. Morris et Al. ( 1996a Australia ) : 44 first-ever shot patients with individual lesions on CT were examined for the presence of post-stroke depression, badness of depression and its relationship to lesion location. Patients with left hemisphere prefrontal or basal ganglia constructions had a significantly higher frequence of depressive upset than other left hemispheric lesions or those with right hemispheric lesions. Based on the consequences of a meta-analysis conducted by Bhogal et Al. ( 2004 ) , there appears to be some grounds that depression following shot may be related to the anatomical site of encephalon harm, although the nature of this anatomic relationship is non wholly clear ( Bhogal et al. 2004 ; Figure 18.1 ) . The John Hopkins Group ( Lipsey et al. 1983, Robinson & A ; Szetela 1981, Robinson & A ; Price 1982, Robinson et Al. 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1987 ) carried out a series of surveies researching the relationship of post-stroke depression to the location of the lesion within the encephalon itself. They found that in a selected group of shot patients, similar to those admitted to a shot rehabilitation unit, depression appeared to be more frequent in patients with left hemispheric lesions ( Robinson & A ; Szetela 1981, Robinson & A ; Price 1982, Robinson 1986, Robinson et al 1987 ) . Among these patients, the badness of depression correlated reciprocally withthe distance of the lesion from the frontal poles ( Robinson & A ; Szetela 1981, Robinson & A ; Price 1982, Robinson et Al. 1982,1983, 1984, 1986, 1987, Starkstein et al. 1987 ) . Patients with subcortical, cerebellar or brainstem lesions had much shorter-lasting depressions than patients with cortical lesions ( Starkstein et Al. 1987,1988 ) . The correlativity of major depression to the propinquity of the lesion to the frontal pole has been confirmed by Sinyor et Al. ( 1986 ) and Eastwood ( 1989 ) . Right hemispheric lesions failed to show a similar relationship with depression. Interestingly, in one survey, patients who had both an anxiousness upset and a major depression showed a significantly higher frequence of cortical lesions, while patients with major depression merely had a significantly higher frequence of subcortical ( radical ganglia ) shot ( Starkstein et al. 1987 ) . Finally, the two big systematic reappraisals by Singh et Al. ( 1998 ) and Carson et Al. ( 2000 ) referred to antecedently, failed to happen a relationship between the shot lesion site and depression. Recent studies have suggested that psychosocial hazard factors including age, sex and functional damage or old history of psychiatric perturbation are greater subscribers to the development of PSD than lesion location ( Singh et al. 2000, Berg et Al. 2003, Carota et Al. 2004, Aben et Al. 2006 ) . While the literature on PSA remains in its babyhood, the literature has begun to analyze its relationship to similar demographic, hurt, cognitive, and physical features as those examined for PSD. In footings of hurt features, PSA correlates signii ¬?cantly with right hemisphere lesions, while co-morbid PSA and PSD are linked to go forth hemisphere lesions ( Astrom, 1996 ) . Castillo et Al. ( 1993 ) found anxiousness more prevalent in association with posterior right hemisphere lesions, whereas worry without anxiousness upset was associated with anterior lesions. Those surveies that have found relationships between PSA and age and gender study that adult females ( Morrison, Johnston, & A ; Walter, 2000 ; Schultz, Castillo, Kosier, & A ; Robinson, 1997 ) and younger patients ( & lt ; 59 old ages ) are more susceptible to PSA ( Schultz et al. , 1997 ) , while others report no signii ¬?cant relationship ( Dennis et al. , 2000 ) . Most surveies that have examined cognitive map and PSA have besides assessed physical damage. Castillo et Al. ( 1993, 1995 ) study that PSA is non signii ¬?cantly correlated with physical operation, cognitive operation, or societal operation. While some writers likewise report no signii ¬?cant correlativity ( Starkstein et al. , 1990 ) , others report that anxiousness is linked to greater damage in activities of day-to-day populating both acutely and up to 3 old ages post stroke ( Schultz et al. , 1997 ) . To day of the month, few surveies have examined both depression and anxiousness station shot, or their differential relationships to these factors. Suzanne L. Barker-Collo ( 2007 ) found in his survey Prevalence rates for moderate to severe depression and anxiousness in the present sample were 22.8 and 21.1 % , severally. That left hemisphere lesion was related to increased likeliness of depression and anxiousness is consistent with the literature if one considers 3 months to be within the acute stage of recovery ( Astrom, 1996 ; Astrom et al. , 1993 ; Bhogal et al. , 2004 ) . There is a dearth of literature about Body Dysmorphic Disorder ( BDD ) in station shot person.Aim and aims:To depict psychiatric profile of the patient with amputation and comparison with station shot patient.Materials and methods:Study was carried out in outpatient and inpatient section of orthopedicss, plastic surgery, general medical specialty at Govt. Stanley Medical College.Time period of survey:From may 2012 to October 2012 ( 6months )Design of survey:Case -control surveyChoice of sample:A sum of 30 patient consecutively chosen, organize the sample for instances and back-to-back sample of 30 patient with shot constitute the control group. Patient were assessed within the period of two to six hebdomads after amputation and shot.Inclusion and Exclusion standards:Cases ( Patients with amputation )INCLUSION CRITERIA:Patients who underwent elected every bit good as exigency amputation. Age between 18 old ages to 60 old ages.Exclusion Standards:Patients with age less than 18 old ages and with age more than 60 old ages Previous history of psychiatric unwellness Patients with history of psychiatric unwellness before the amputation Patients with other medical unwellnessControlsINCLUSION CRITERIA:Patients with shot Age between 18 old ages to 60 old ages.Exclusion Standards:Patients with age less than 18 old ages and with age more than 60 old ages Previous history of psychiatric unwellness Patients with history of psychiatric unwellness before the oncoming of shot Patients with other medical unwellnessTools used:A structured interview agenda to analyze the demographics, clinical characteristics and other relevant factors in history. General Health Questionnair ( GHQ-28 ) Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale ( HADS ) Hamilton Depression evaluation Scale ( HDRS/HAM-D ) Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale ( BPRS ) Yale Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale for Body Dysmorphic Disorder. ( YBOCS-BDD )General Health Questionnaire ( GHQ 28 )The GHQ 28 was developed by Goldberg in 1978, Developed as a shouting tool to observe those likely to hold or to crush hazard of developing psychiatric upset. GHQ 28 is a 28 point steps of emotional depression medical scenes, through factor analysis GHQ 28 has been divided into 4 subscales. They are: Bodily symptoms ( 1-7 ) Anxiety/insomnia ( 8-14 ) Social disfunction ( 15-21 ) Severe depression ( 22-28 ) Each point is occupied by 4 possible responses non at all, no more than usual, instead more than usual and much more than usual. There are different methods to hit GHQ 28. It can be scored from 0-3 for each response with a entire possible mark on the runing from 0-84. Using this method, a entire mark of 23/24 is the threshold for the presence of hurt. Alternatively to GHQ 28 can be scored with a binary method where non at all and no more than usual mark 0, and instead more than usual and much more than usual mark 1, utilizing this method any mark above 4 indicates the presence of hurt. Numerous surveies have investigated dependability and cogency of the GHQ 28 in assorted clinical populations. Test-Retest dependability has been reported to be high ( 0.78+00.09 ) ( Robinson and monetary value ( 1982 ) and intra rater and inter rater dependability have both been shown to be first-class ( crnballi ‘s 20.9-0.95 ) . High internal consistences have besides been reported. ( Failde and Ramos 2000 ) . GHQ 28 correlatives good with the infirmary depression and anxiousness graduated table ( HADS ) ( Sakakibara 2009 ) and other steps of depression ( Robinson and monetary value 1982 ) .Hospital anxiousness and depression graduated table ( HADS )HADS was originally developed by Zigmond and snaitn ( 1983 ) , it is normally used to find the degrees of anxiousness and depression. Sum of 14 points in that 7 points for anxiousness and 7 for depression. Each point on the questionnaire is scored from 0-3 and this means that individual can hit between 0 and 21 for either anxiousne ss or depression. ( Scale used is a likes mark and the bow informations returned from the HADS is ordinal informations ) and subdivided into mild 8-10, moderate 11-15 and terrible greater or equal to 16. Internal consistence has been found to be first-class for the anxiousness ( 2-85 ) and adequate for the depression graduated table and besides has equal cogency for anxiousness HADS gave a specificity of 0.78 sensitiveness of 0.9. For depression this gave specificity of 0.78 and sensitiveness of 0.83.Hamilton Rating Scale for DepressionThe Hamilton evaluation graduated table for depression ( HAMD ) , developed by M.Hamilton is the most widely used evaluation graduated table to measure the symptoms of depression. The HAMD is a observer rated scale consisting of 17 to 21 points ( separately 2 portion points, weight and denary fluctuation ) . Rating is based on clinical interview, plus any extra variable information such as household members study. The points are rated on either 0-4 spectrum or a 0-2 spectrum. The HAM-D relies rather to a great extent on the clinical interviewing teguments and experience of rater in measuring persons with depressive unwellness. As most patients score zero on rare points in depression ( Depersonalization and compulsion and paranoiac symptoms ) , the entire mark on HAMD by and large consists of merely amount of first 17 points. The strength of the HAMD is first-class proof research base and easiness of disposal. Its usage is limited in person who have psychiatric upset other than primary depressionScoring0-7 aNormal 8-13 aMild depression 14-18 aModerate depression 19-22 asevere depression Greater than 23 aVery terrible depressionsBrief psychiatric evaluation accomplishment ( BPRS )Developed by JE overall and Dr.Gorhav in 1962 it is widely used comparatively brief graduated table that measures major psychotic and non psychotic symptoms in single with major psychiatric upset, peculiarly Scurophressia. The 18 points BPRS is possibly the most researched instrument in psychopathology. 18 points rated on 1-7. Items are divided into observed and reported points.Observed ItemsReported ItemsEmotional backdown Bodily concern Conceptual disorganisation Anxiety Tension Guilt feeling Idiosyncrasy and Posturing Depressive temper Motor deceleration Hostility Uncooperativeness Suspicion Blunted affect Hallucinatory behaviour Exhilaration Unusual tuocyn content Disorientation Strengths of the graduated table includes is brevity, easiness of disposal, broad usage and good rescanned position.Yale Brown Obsessive compulsive Scale for BDDYBOCS is a test/scale to rate the badness of OCD symptoms. Scale was designed by Dr.Wayne Goodman and his co-workers, is used extensively in research and clinical pattern. Modified YBOCS graduated table is used to mensurate to badness of symptoms of compulsion and irresistible impulse in a patient holding pre business with sensed defect in visual aspect ( BDD ) . It is a 12 point instrument consisting 5 inquiries on preoccupation and 5 inquiries on compulsive behavior, one on penetration and one on turning away. More specifically it assesses clip occupied by preoccupation with the sensed defect in visual aspect, intervention in operation, hurt, opposition and control. Similar buildings are assessed for compulsive behavior. Similar to the YBOCS for OCD, each points on the YBOCS-BDD measured on the 5 point likert graduated table with higher mark denoting progressively psycho-pathology. Mark on this 12 points ranges from 0-48 the YBOCS-BDD has been shown to hold good inter rated dependability, trial retest dependability and internal consistence. It has besides shown to be sensitive to alter. It was developed as mensurating badness of BDD symptoms instead than as a diagnostic tool. It should be noted that, scale first 3 points reflect the DSM IV diagnostic standards for BDD. The advantage or BDD-YBOCS is that it assists in comparing clients across surveies. It is based on the YBOCS and is hence curicitically bound to a theoretical account of an obsessional compulsive ghosts disorder. An of import different between YBOCS BDD and YBOCS for OCD is that the ideas about the organic structure defect combine the evaluation for both the stimulation and knowledge response. In OCD Rumination would be rated under the irresistible impulse.ProcedureA sum of 30 patients amputation consecutively chosen signifier to try for instances and a at the same time sample 30 patient with shot constitute to command group who free make full the exclusion and inclusion standards were taken for survey. A written informed concern was obtained. HAMD, BPRS, HADS, GHQ-28, YBOCS-BDD graduated tables were administered after clinically measuring as per 1CD-10 diagnostic standards.Ethical commission blessingThe survey was submitted for ethical commission blessing on at Govt. Stanley infirma ry and blessing was obtained.Statistical methodThe information collected will be entered in excel marker sheet and analysis utilizing SPSS for this different in frequence distribution and other evaluations on different steps appropriate statistical trial seen as t trial, cui square trial are employed. The socio demographical profile and HAMD, YBOCS BDD, HADS, BPRS GHQ-28 graduated tables were given in frequences with their percentage.HAMD, HADS, BPRS, GHQ-28, YBOCS BDD scores difference between instances and controls were analyzed utilizing chi- square trial. The place of the topic in instances and control were analyzed utilizing cui-square trial. The Association between socio demographic, psychiatric upset was analyzed utilizing cui-square trial. Incidence of psychiatric morbidity off amputees was given in per centum 95 % assurance interval.

Stem Cell Opposition

The Stem Cell Research Argument: Why Stem Cell Research Has Opposition Joshua Jefferson Southern University in Shreveport Stem cell research is one of the most promising study that has been conducted in the past two decades. It has the potential to virtually wipe out the need for organ transplants, to restore motion to those suffering from paralysis, and so many other crippling diseases. Certain groups of people do not agree in the method that stem cells are collected and that causes the ethics behind this method to come into question.There are ways to avoid this argument all together by understanding the argument against stem cell research, avoiding that method, and then to use methods that will not go against others beliefs. Stem cell research deals with the study of how to manipulate stem cells so that they can restore an organ, to replace an organ, or to be used as a kind of patch work. The list of problems that stem cells are thought to be able to fix is endless. Stem cells are basically cells that have not started to develop into a certain kind of cell. This allows scientist to manipulate these cells so that they became what ever kind of cell that they desire.In the future, medical researchers anticipate being able to use technologies derived from stem cell research to treat a wider variety of diseases including  , Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injuries, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and  Ã‚  damage, amongst a number of other impairments and conditions. Today they use stem cells to treat diseases like leukemia and bone marrow transplants(Weise, 2005) . The possibility of being able to just produce any type of organ and then replace the bad organ, without the wait of of an organ donor.A person would think the knowledge of this kind of work and the possibility of living a longer more comfortable life would make people to support research and to push for funding into this type of research. The reason why the funding for some resea rch groups are not present due to the belief system of some people. There are a number of ways to obtain stem cells that are used today. The use of embryonic and adult stem cells are the two main type of stem cells that are obtained. They differ in the way they are obtained. Adult stem cells can be found in both children and adult.These stem cells rely on the already present cell population. They are also called somatic cells, these cells contain the blueprints for any cell type that exists within the region, or organ from which they came. Just like the ability to be manipulated into other cells(Weise, 2005) . The difference between these cells and embryonic stem cells is the fact that embryonic cells can make any type of cell type while adult cells can only make certain types. There is much less controversy associated with adult stem cells because there is no destruction of embryonic material.There is still opposition versus the use of adult stem cells because of how the DNA inside the cells is used. Embryonic stem cell research has the unlimited range on where it can go in the future and it is the most controversial. Embryonic stem cells can start to grow into any type of cell. This is because these cells are in the the first stage of development and have not been given instructions on what to become. These stem cells are preset when an embryo's cells are multiplying. This would be the the first stage in a babies development. This is the reason why there is controversy surrounding embryonic research.Scientist destroy the embryo to obtain its stem cells ultimately destroying a future life. The embryos tend to be from unwanted pregnancy and would eventually breakdown because the lack of a mother to develop in. People that support certain movements like â€Å"Pro-life† are some usually do not want any kind of destruction of any kind of possible human life. The use of these stems cells should be allowed to be used , but the practice of starting off life o nly to destroy it is completely unethical and should not be funded by. The obtaining of stem cells just has to be reevaluated.We have to look at the other options that can help us to yield the results we want. There are a number of options that can help us obtain stem cells that can help to cure all the ailments that stem cell can help with. Also known as somatic cells, an adult cell contains the blueprints for any cell type that exists within the region, or organ from which it came. In effect, these cells have the same capabilities in terms of being able to manufacture other cell types. Somatic cell nuclear transfer, also known as therapeutic cloning, involves the use of a hollowed-out ovum cell, meaning all the original DNA material is removed.An adult cell's nucleus, or DNA material, is then transferred into the ovum cell. Through electrical stimulation, the ovum begins to grow as if its original embryo were intact. Induced pluripotent cells are adult cells that have been genetic ally engineered to behave like embryonic cells(Jeanty) . This is accomplished by injecting specific genes and catalyst molecules into the DNA of an adult cell. This technique uses no embryonic stem cell materials, however the resulting cells are able to differentiate into any cell type within the body, much like embryonic stem cells can(Jeanty) .Epidermal neural crest stem cells are adult cells that form the hair follicles on the scalp. These cells are capable of generating a number of different cell types within the body. â€Å"Meanwhile, many scientists predict that induced pluripotent stem cells, or iPS cells, created by turning back the biological clock of normal adult cells, will one day supplant embryonic stem cells. †(Katherine Hobson, 2009) The list on the positive effects of stem-cell research is virtually endless. The debate is over how we harvest those stem cells.If we can find a way has virtually no ethic questions then scientist will be able to help millions of p eople. Reference Jeanty, J. (n. d. ). ehow. Retrieved from http://www. ehow. com/about_5675956_alternative-embryonic-stem-cell-research. html Katherine Hobson. (2009, July 02). usnews. com. Retrieved from http://health. usnews. com/health-news/family-health/heart/articles/2009/07/02/embryonic-stem-cells–and-other-stem-cells–promise-to-advance-treatments National institutes of health and human resources for stem cell research.

Effects of Taxation on Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Effects of Taxation on Economy - Essay Example A tax on a commodity tends to be shifted from the producer forward to the consumer and from the consumer backward to the producer. A tax on production of a commodity tends to raise its price and will, therefore, be normally borne by the consumer. But a tax on consumption is likely to check consumption and tends to be shifted backward to the producer. The tax levied of consumers can reduce the demand. Commodity taxes are disincentive to purchase the commodities on which they are levied. The amount by which the tax reduces purchases will depend upon the elasticity of demand for that commodity. The less elastic is the demand and the supply, the less will the demand be reduced. On the other hand the tax levied on corporations will impose a disincentive on a firm to incorporate. Taxes on firms can lead to low motivation for investment, which will in turn reduce the supply for goods if the Government has imposed price control with tax initiatives. A tax on income tends to reduce the ability to save and invest on the part of individuals. A tax on net profits of business firms will reduce their ability to save and invest. A decrease in investment is bound to affect adversely the level of output. The equilibrium price and quantity will be changed according to the elasticity of demand of that good. ... The equilibrium price and quantity will be changed according to the elasticity of demand of that good. The extent to which a commodity tax will actually be shifted will depend upon the nature of demand and supply curves. If demand is inelastic, as is the case with the necessaries of life the people must buy the commodity. The producer will be in stronger position and almost the entire burden of the tax will be shifted on to the consumer. But in the case of elastic demand, the people will buy less. In that case the price will not rise by the full amount of the tax, and the tax will be partly borne by the producer (Dewett, 571-572). - In this market, describe a hypothetical situation where a price ceiling or floor could be imposed. What implications would this have for the market' Government actions may shift demand and supply curves as when changes in safety legislation shifts the supply curve. Price controls are Government rules or laws that forbid the adjustment of prices to clear markets. Price controls undertaken in the market can be of two types. 1. Price ceilings: In this case Government applies an upper limit for the sellers and they cannot charge more prices upper than that limit. Such a limit is usually imposed when the shortage of a commodity is expected to increase the price of a commodity. Although through charging high prices the rationing of the scarce commodities can be undertaken. The solution to the problem of scarce supply of a commodity can be responded by an increased price but this is an unfair solution. For example high food prices can lead to considerable hardship among the poor. In the case of above market 2. Price floors: Governments impose a limit of minimum price of

Leadership Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Leadership Theories - Essay Example It is a tough call because leaders and followers are unique human beings and thereby each situation has an unknown entity factored in. A range of leadership theories have tried to put forth different leadership styles which is the recurring pattern of behaviours exhibited by a leader. A leader's style is based on the degree of concern to the accomplishment of the task and the people who do the task. The early Trait theories of the 1920's and 1930's, tried to understand the specific traits that differentiated leaders and non-leaders. These may be physical traits like age, height, weight, or social characteristics like being popular, charismatic or diplomatic or personal traits like being self-confident and adaptable. Task-related characteristics include being driven to excel, accepting of responsibility, having initiative, and being results-oriented. Trait theories concentrated on the inherent individual traits rather the situation but their drawback was that they did not take into account situational differences. Also, they did not take into account the fact that when these attributes are cultivated by education and training whether they were as effective as the inherent qualities. Due to the uniqueness of situations and individuals, trait theories lost their vote when compared to situational theories. Contingency Theories take into account environmental factors and recommend adaptable leadership behaviour to actual situational requirements. Fiedler's contingency theory was based on the premise that good leadership is always a match between leadership style and situational demands. What works in a particular environment may not be successful in a different environment. Fiedler's theory consisted of three contingency variables. The first was the leader-member relations (good or poor) that determined group support for the leader. The second was the task structure (high or low) that specified the accuracy of the task and goals. And the third was the position power that determined the power or authority of the manager to punish or reward his subordinates. These are combined in a weighted sum that is termed "Favourable" at one end and "unfavourable" at the other. Task oriented style worked with better member relations while or relationship oriented style is defined for other circumstances. Thus, a given situation might call for a manager with a different style or a manager who could take on a different style for a different situation. Fiedler's theory is successful only when there is a good match between style and situation. The task-motivated style leader takes pride in his work and feels happy in the achievement of company goals. The relationship-oriented manager seems to place more emphasis relationship building. Therefore this works only when the prospective managers have the right situation that suits their predominant style and is dependent on internal and external constraints. The leadership qualities that are required to make a good leader can vary in different organisations, teams and situations. This is one of the fundamental principles underlying most popular leadership systems such as Situational Leadership (developed by Blanchard and Hersey in the late 1960s). Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership model suggests that successful leaders can adjust their styles depending on the readiness of the followers to perform in a given situation. The leadership styles portrayed are combinations of task oriented and relationship

Describe a situatio in which you showed your leadership Essay

Describe a situatio in which you showed your leadership - Essay Example During these months, my FOBS group would end up coming to school, taking classes, having lunch, and go back home unlike other native students involved in different activities and events. However, with effective utilization of my intellectual maturity and leadership skills, I began to indicate my dissatisfaction of such confrontation to myself, and decided to stop others to treat me as an invisible in the school. With such determination, I began to think of an idea that would enable me to alter such perspective of native students in the school. While crossing streets of Chinatown on Chinese New Year’s eve, I came across a very delicate Chinese knot representing good luck that spontaneously inclined my mind towards a very new concept of starting an ‘Asian Arts and Crafts Club’ along with support of my friends from the FOBS group. With a new wave of motivation and excitement, I convinced my friends to support me in establishing the group. Although my friends were Chinese, however, we lacked many traditional skills, therefore, I arranged an instructor who taught us different ways of creating Chinese artwork, which put a new ray of enthusiasm in us, and now, we had a purpose rather than only coming to school and going out for the shopping. During the lessons, I learnt new things while having fun, and with this observation, I came up with slogan of our club, ‘learn with fun,’ as everyone enjoyed process of acquiring different traditional skills during the sessions. Another difficult phase was acquiring official status for the group, which was the most complicated phase, as school management had mostly rejected such appeals. However, with effective utilization of my presentation skills, I was successful in persuading the school management to allow us to establish an official club in the school, and finally, after huge efforts of three months, I, as the

How Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement Relates to Essay

How Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement Relates to CMMI - Essay Example This paper provides a summary of the article Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement and its relationship with CMMI. Summary The goals and objectives, products and services of organizations are not uniform. Nor do organizations uniformly implement CMMI models to improve their business processes or the manner in which analyse the results obtained. Irrespective of these variances the CMM-based process improvement approach is proving to be effective. Evidence of this started with the earlier special report published by the Software Engineering Institute (SEI). This article provides further empirical evidence taken from diverse sources of business activity that includes the telecommunications, financial, manufacturing and defence sectors. This article classifies performance categories into six broad areas, consisting of cost, schedule, productivity, quality, customer satisfaction, and return on investment and employing CMMI is to provide benefits in these areas. Usually org anizations choose a combination of these benefits or refinements in these benefits and the use of CMMI targets this. Through the comparison of the sum of results of quantitative performance across 35 organizations with regards to these benefits prior to the use of CMMI and subsequent this article justifies the use of CMMI towards improvement in performance results. The median improvement as a percentage with respect to cost, schedule, productivity, quality, and customer satisfaction was 34%, 50%, 61%, 48%, and 14% respectively, while in the case of returns on investment it was 40.1. According to the article through the use of CMMI organizations can achieve similar results, but there is the need for more quantitative studies to provide clarity on the circumstances that lead to these process improvements and the manner in which they can be sustained. Expanding on the demonstration of impact on performance by CMMI, this article provides greater detail on the changes that organizations report with regards to these six benefits. In the case of costs the changes include cost of final or intermediate products, costs of processes, and savings achieved model-based process improvement. In the case of schedule the improvements reported relate to schedule predictability and the reduced time required to complete the work. Improvements reported for productivity are essentially on the improvements on the amount of work that is completed over a given period of time. Reported improvements in quality relate to the reduction in the numbers of defects observed in finished or intermediary products. Improvements in customer satisfaction are based on customer satisfaction feedback received from surveys conducted. Improvements in ROI are reported in several ways that include benefit-to-cost ratios, net present value, internal rate of return, payback periods, and break even points. The article then goes onto the details of measures of process performance achieved in the case studies o f several organizations. The case studies include the organizations of 3H Technology, ABB, Hitachi Software Engineering, Motorola Global Software Group, Raytheon Network Centric Systems, North Texas, TrialStat Corporation, Tufts Health Plan, Warner Robins Air Logistic Center, The article concludes that organizations that have based their process improvement methods on CMMI models have demonstrated marked improvement in their performance, but more studies are required to understand the different reasons that contribute to this success and also generate more evidence to establish the benefits of CMMI models for process improvements and hence performance in organizations (Gibson, Goldensen & Kost, 2006). . This article relates to CMMI because it attempts to justify the use of CMMI models by organizations to

Mid- Term Exam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Mid- Term Exam - Assignment Example In addition, this security model largely emphasizes the security aspects of information technology and helps people in analyzing all those important aspects that pertain to the comprehensive and valuable features of information technology (Whitman and Herbert 1-250). The three major components of the C.I.A triangle consist of Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability. Confidentiality: It is considered as one of the most important components of this particular model as it solely emphasizes the aspect of procurement of valuable information and it’s prevention from getting shared to unauthorized personnel. Information technology is considered to be a vital aspect as it serves multiple purposes. All kinds of major transactions that take place in today’s scenario are mostly based online mode and there are many malicious internet users who are very proficient in stealing and manipulating information that is highly restrictive (Whitman and Herbert 1-250). Integrity: It is al so considered to be a vital aspect of this particular triangle as this component largely emphasizes the protection of information along with preventing it from getting modified or even manipulated from any kind of unauthorized users which may prove to disrupt the information sharing process (Whitman and Herbert 1-250). ... to be the most important aspect in the field of information technology as it widely emphasizes the broad aspect of protection of information along with ensuring unauthorized access. It also facilitates to prevent revelation or disruption of the information to unwanted individuals. The two key concepts of information security essentially include IT security and Information assurance. IT security relates to ensuring proper security to the computers and all its components. Similarly, information assurance relates to the procurement of information and prevention of the valuable data from getting lost or being manipulated. However, both of these concepts have greater significance in relation to the triangle, especially in the modern day technological context as these concepts along with the components of C.I.A aim at a basic objective i.e. to ensure all round security in matters pertaining to information technology and its proper usage (Whitman and Herbert 1-250). Best example of informat ion technology and utilization of the concepts of information security and components of C.I.A would be that it is utilized by IT specialists, corporations, hospitals, financial institutions, government and military among broad entities. The components are utilized with the prime objective of ensuring comprehensive and steadfast security regarding various types of business information that are processed and shared for various authenticated and business purposes (Whitman and Herbert 1-250). 2. DESCRIBE AN INFORMATION SECURITY POLICY. EXPLAIN WHY IT IS CRITICAL TO THE SUCCESS OF AN INFORMATION SECURITY PROGRAM Information security policies are certain documented business rules and regulations that are implemented for the sole purpose of storing and protecting information in an appropriate

Logistics and Supply Chain Management Case Study

Logistics and Supply Chain Management - Case Study Example This discussion stresses that a supply chain may not be used to only cut costs. Instead, it could also be used to increase revenues and hence profits. The costs could still remain the same. It gives an organization a competitive advantage against its competitors. It does not allow any sale to be lost. When the customer wants something, an effective supply chain would ensure that it is available. This increases the customer’s interest in the company and encourages brand loyalty. It also helps keep a close contact with the suppliers which ensures that maximum advantage can be gained out of doing business with them.This paper highlights that Zara is one of the largest brands, by the Inditex Fashion Retail Group, that has 723 stores in 56 countries making sales of Euro 3.8 billion. Zara has a very high product turnover. It makes more than 11,000 products annually. The annual report of Zara (Inditex) for the fiscal year 2006 covers all activities from February 2006 to January 2007. Zara opened 138 new stores during the past year, increasing its selling area by 15%. The sales were an increase of 21% at Euro 5,352 million. It earned net profit of Euro 1 billion an increase of 25%, was in contrast to last year’s profit. The sales in Europe, with exception to Spain, were 40.6% of the total. After considering all this impressive data and the number of shops, it is clear why a widespread company like Zara needs a supply chain which is efficient.... When the customer wants something, an effective supply chain would ensure that it is available. This increases the customer's interest in the company and encourages brand loyalty. It also helps keep a close contact with the suppliers which ensures that maximum advantage can be gained out of doing business with them. Zara is one of the largest brands, by the Inditex Fashion Retail Group, that has 723 stores in 56 countries making sales of Euro 3.8 billion (India Supply Chain Council, 2006). Zara has a very high product turnover. It makes more than 11,000 products annually. The annual report of Zara (Inditex) for the fiscal year 2006 covers all activities from February 2006 to January 2007. Zara opened 138 new stores during the past year, increasing its selling area by 15%. The sales were an increase of 21% at Euro 5,352 million. It earned net profit of Euro 1 billion (Safe G., 2007) an increase of 25%, was in contrast to last year's profit. The sales in Europe, with exception to Spain, were 40.6% of the total. (Inditex Annual Report, 2007) After considering all this impressive data and the number of shops, it is clear why a widespread company like Zara needs a supply chain which is efficient. Zara's fashion is based on imitation; it copies designs from the catwalk and other spots and brings them to their customers at low prices in as little as a couple of weeks. Since this is all the time that is given to them, the whole process of designing, ordering, producing and delivering the clothes to the stores must be quick and timely. If this is not done, Zara will not have enough new items to bring to the shelves (which is its technique) every two weeks. Since Zara does not advertise, this is the only way it can attract customers. When the

Discussion 10 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Discussion 10 - Essay Example e a model to guide practice because of need for consistency in problem solution and possible efficiency that follows repeated application of a particular model. Consistency is necessary for reliability because models have different elements and procedures that could initiate differences in results. Identifying and relying on a single model however resolves this and allows for a basis for comparisons. Repeated application of a model also ensures competence in its application for better accurate evidence. The four models are similar in their methodology to evidence based practice in that they are structured. The Stetler model has five major steps: â€Å"preparation,† â€Å"validation,† â€Å"comparative evaluation,† â€Å"application,† and â€Å"evaluation† (Profetto-McGrath, Polit, & Beck, 2010, p. 376, 377). The IOWA model identifies such steps as recognizing triggers, evaluating priority, identification of problem, and implementation of a change (Profetto-McGrath, Polit, & Beck, 2010). Despite existence of well-defined methodologies in the models, each model has its specific procedure and this establishes the models’ differences (Profetto-McGrath, Polit, & Beck, 2010; Ackley, 2008). The models are also suitable for different areas of specialization. While the IOWA model is suitable for practice in areas with limited evidence, John Hopkins models is suitable for scientific research and Rosswurn & Larrabee model is suitable for acute care sc enarios (Rempher, 2006). In selecting a model in a setting, I would consider suitability of the model for the setting and complexity of the problem. This is because the factors are significant to successful intepratation of evidence (Profetto-McGrath, Polit, & Beck, 2010). Rempher, K. (2006). Putting theory into practice: Six steps to success. American Nurse Today. Retrieved from:

Work Family Conflict Essay Example for Free

Work Family Conflict Essay Consequences Associated With Work-to-Family Conflict: A Review and Agenda for Future Research Tammy D. Allen, David E. L. Herst, Carly S. Bruck, and Martha Sutton University of South Florida A comprehensive review of the outcomes associated with work-to-family conflict was conducted and effect sizes were estimated. A typology was presented that grouped outcomes into 3 categories: work related, nonwork related, and stress related. Issues concerning the measurement of workfamily conflict were also discussed. The results demonstrate the widespread and serious consequences associated with work-to-family conflict. On the basis of the results of the review, an agenda for future research was provided. Striking changes in the nature of families and the workforce, such as more dual-career couples and rising numbers of working mothers with young children, have increased the likelihood that employees of both genders have substantial household responsibilities in addition to their work responsibilities (Bond, Galinsky, Swanberg, 1998; Gilbert, Hallett, Eldridge, 1994). These radical changes have prompted considerable research related to work and family issues. The topic of work-family conflict has been of particular conflict interest. Recent research indicates that 40% of employed parents experience work-family at least some of the time 1993). Moreover, (Galinsky, Bond, Friedman,  Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964) suggested that work-family conflict is a type of interrole conflict in which role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible to some degree. That is, work-family conflict occurs when demands associated with one domain are Kopelman, incompatible with demands associated with the other domain (Greenhaus Buetell, 1985; Greenhaus, Connolly, 1983). Although early  research treated work-family conflict primarily as a unidimensional construct, recent research (Frone, Russell, Cooper, 1992) suggests that it is reciprocal in nature, in that work can interfere with family (work-to-family conflict; WFC) and family can interfere with work (family-to-work conflict; FWC). WFC and FWC are generally considered distinct but related constructs. Research to date has primarily investigated how work interferes or conflicts with family. Outcomes associated with excessive work interference with family include job dissatisfaction, job burnout, turnover, depression, life dissatisfaction, and marital dissatisfaction (e.g., Adams, King, King, 19%; R. J. Burke, 1988; Frone et al., 1992; Greenhaus Beutell, 1985; Netemeyer, Boles, McMurrain, 1996; Thomas Ganster, 1995). Despite the rapidly growing body of literature examining WFC, few efforts have been made to review empirical findings. Over a decade ago, Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) reviewed the studies that had investigated sources or antecedents of WFC. More recently, Kossek and Ozeki (1998) conducted a meta-analysis examining the relationship between WFC and two specific outcomes: job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Kossek and Ozekis work was much needed and an informative addition to the literature. However, there are many additional outcome variables that have been empirically related to WFC that were not included in Kossek and Ozekis study. The  Galinsky et al. reported that workers who started a new job within the past 2 years stated that the effect of the job on family life was second in importance to open communications when formulating their decision to accept the job. Likewise, Galinsky, Johnson, and Friedman (1993) cited a study conducted by the New York Times indicating that 83% of working mothers and 72% of working fathers reported experiencing conflict between their job demands and their desire to spend more time with their families. These findings underscore the importance of the topic of work-family conflict to both organizations and employees. Tammy D. Allen, David E. L. Herst, Carly S. Bruck, and Martha Sutton, Department of Psychology, University of South Florida. Aprevious version of this article was presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, Georgia. We thank Mark L. Poteet, Lillian T. Eby, and Paul E.  Specter for their helpful comments regarding various aspects of this article. Correspondence concerning this article should he addressed to Tammy D. Allen, University of South Florida, Department of Psychology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, BEH 339, Tampa, Florida 33620-8200. Electronic mail may he sent to [emailprotected]  purpose of the present article is to fill this void in the literature. This review provides a comprehensive summary and evaluation of empirical research of the outcomes associated with WFC, including an organizing framework and suggestions for future research. An extensive review is needed for several reasons, One area of concern is the l imited amount of integration in the field. The work and family research arena is fractionated because of diverse types of individuals working in it. For example, individuals working in disciplines such as psychology, sociology, business, and social work have contributed to work and family research. This tends to lead to an emphasis on different issues (e.g., sociologists are more concerned with family-related outcomes, whereas organizational psychologists are more concerned with work-related outcomes) without an examination of similar work in other disciplines. As noted by Russell (1991), implications associated with fractionation and isolation are that progress in research and practice is not systematic or integrated. Separate, disjointed theories may develop across fields as a result. This limits the progress that could be made by taking a broader, more integrative perspective that builds on previous research. By providing a summary of existing research organized under one framework, we hope that researchers from various disciplines will become more familiar with one anothers work, facilitating the integration of findings from various subfields and subsequent theory building. Additionally, a comprehensive review of the area should help clarify and underscore the widespread negative effects of WFC. A better understanding of these effects might aid in efforts to manage the work and family interface. Moreover, highlighting the dysfunctional and socially costly effects  associated with WFC may help convince policymakers of the need to provide interventions that can help mitigate WFC. For clarity and parsimony, our article is restricted to a review of the outcomes associated with work-tofamily conflict (WFC). In some cases, results were reported in which researchers combined WFC with FWC or asked about work and family conflict in general. Those cases are noted in the review. This review is divided into four major sections. First, the criteria used to identify articles for the review and to conduct statistical analyses are briefly described. Second, we examine issues concerning the measurement of WFC. Third, we present the results of our review for the three categories of outcomes followed by a summary and suggestions for additional research for each. Finally, a general discussion of findings and future research are provided. Method Relevant articles were identified through manual and computer searches. Computerized searches were conducted through PsycLJT and OVID information bases using the key words work and family conflict.11 A manual search was conducted of all articles published from 1977 through 1998 in Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision-Making Processes, and Academy of Management Journal. Additionally, the reference list of each identified article was manually cross-checked for other potential articles. Attempts were also made to locate articles that used slightly different terms such as interrole conflict and multiple role stress1 to refer to WFC. Our criteria for inclusion in the review were twofold. One, WFC had to be a quantitatively measured variable in the study. Thus, we eliminated articles that were not empirical. Two, the study had to measure the relations hip between WFC and one or more variables that could theoretically be considered outcomes of WFC. This eliminated articles that focused solely on sources or antecedents of WFC. It should be noted at this point that the majority of studies in the work and family arena have been cross-sectional in nature, precluding firm causal inferences regarding the direction of the relationships studied. For the purposes of the present review, we included variables that seemed more reasonable or plausible as outcomes of WFC rather than as causes. It is not  our intention to infer that reverse causality is not feasible. A total of 67 articles were located that fit these criteria. Statements regarding significance are based on the zeroorder bivariate correlation between WFC and the outcome variable reported in each study. Except where noted otherwise, relationships cited in text are in the expected direction (e.g., greater WFC was associated with less job satisfaction). Figure 1 provides a framework of the variables included in the study. To provide an estimate of the effect size associated with each of the relationships reviewed, we followed meta-analytic procedures described in Rosenthal (1991). Both unweighted and weighted by sample size average correlations were computed. Only studies that included a zero-order bivariate correlation between WFC and another variable were included in these analyses. In circumstances in which a study involved a sample that was a subset of the same sample used in another study, the study with the largest sample was included in die analysis. An exception was made if sample selection criteria were clearly different. If a study assessed several specific indices of WFC (conflict between parent and worker and conflict between spouse and worker) these were combined to form a general assessment of WFC. A similar approach was used in analyzing several outcome variables. For example, if a .study examined overall mental health and psychological distress, the correlations were combined for the statistical analyses. In studies in which separate correlations were reported for different subgroups (e.g., male vs. female; single-earner vs. dual-earner), the correlation for each subgroup was weighted by sample size and combined. For consistency purposes, we reversed the sign of the correlation in cases such as when a high score on the WFC measure.

Universal Motives Essay Example for Free

Universal Motives Essay What are universal motives? What are some examples of universal motives?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the aspect of psychology, scientist study and determine the behavioral characteristics of each individual based on their personal motives and interest On this aspect, human person basically react, decide, or simply act towards the achievements of their motives and interest. Thus, ensuring the achievement or the satisfaction of these factors can significantly motivate or encourage a person towards a certain reaction or behavioral conditioning. Because of which, the factor of motives and interest become an important factor in the determination of the behavioral pattern and characteristics of each individual.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the field of behavioral pattern and psychological characteristic, several factors are considered to be of universal nature as the general society display similar interest towards the achievement or satisfaction of these certain factors. Due to which, the scientific society established these factors to be universal motives as they are rooted in the innate needs and characteristics of the human behavior in general. Included in this category are the motives for food or survival, job for biosocial function, sex for reproduction and physiological pleasure, friends or family for social acceptance, bodily comfort, health, specific fears, and others. These motives are commonly shared by the universal human population or certain social regions thus, becoming a similar factor in the field of human behavior. The manifestation and development of these universal motives in each individual likewise become a unique characteristic based on the origin of these influences such as environmental factors, social inheritance, biological structures, and others. In general, these motivational factors are commonly shared by the human population giving them their universal characteristics.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The satisfaction of these universal motives are generally important in the behavioral modification and conditioning in the social perspective as these factors serves as the common interest of the people. Likewise, the achievement of these universal motives are essential as they are based on the basic needs of each individual in the physiological and biological nature thus, important for their welfare and survival. As such, considering these factors is important in understanding the human behavioral characteristics and patterns in both the individual and social perspective. Bibliography Gorman, Philip (2004). Motivation and Emotion. Routledge Publication. ISBN-10: 0415227704.